Kings and Queens – History… the interesting bits!

Elizabeth Mure, Robert II and a Question of Legitimacy

13/12/202512/12/2025Sharon Bennett ConnollyLeave a comment

Books by Sharon Bennett Connolly — *Tomb of Marjorie Bruce, Paisley Abbey*

Robert II, King of Scots, had been born on 2 March 1316, as the grandson and heir of Robert the Bruce. His mother. Marjorie Bruce, had died at the time of his birth, or shortly after. He had been supplanted as his grandfather’s heir when Bruce’s queen, Elizabeth de Burgh, gave birth to a son, David Bruce, in 1324. David was crowned as King David II on his father’s death in 1329. Although only 5-years-old, David was already a married ‘man’, having wed Edward III’s 7-year-old sister, Joan of the Tower, in July 1328.

Edward III saw an opportunity in Scotland having a child-king and, notwithstanding the headache he was causing his own sister, he decided to support the claims, to the Scottish crown, of Edward Balliol, son of the deposed king, John Balliol, and his wife, Isabella de Warenne. Edward III invaded Scotland. King David and his young wife were sent to France for their safety, while the Scots fought for the kingdom. One of those leading the fight was Robert Stewart, David’s nephew – Robert the Bruce’s grandson. He had become High Steward of Scotland on his father’s death in 1327. He was made guardian of Scotland whilst still in his late teens and fought in the defeat of the Scots at Halidon Hill in July 1333, when he was still only 17.

Robert was David II’s heir – until the latter produced a son and heir of his own, at least. Uncle and nephew had a fractious relationship, even after David returned from French exile. David may have resented the reputation Robert had gained in fighting for Scottish independence, and he was certainly wary of Robert’s powerful position, as High Steward, guardian and – of course – as heir presumptive to the crown.

Robert’s strength, however, lay not only in his proximity to the throne, but also in the fact he had managed to do what David had not, produce an heir. Six, in fact. Robert’s rather unusual marital situation, and perhaps the growing awareness, as the years went on, that there was less and less likelihood of David producing an heir, saw him apply for a papal dispensation to marry Elizabeth Mure, which was supported by King David, King Philip VI of France, the seven Scottish bishops and parliament. It was granted on 22 November 1347, at least ten years after the start of their relationship. The dispensation allowed for the retrospective legitimisation of their children:

This Robert took to his bed one of the daughters of Adam More, knight; and of her he begat sons and daughters, out of wedlock. But he afterwards – in the year 1349, to wit – bespoke and got the dispensation of the Apostolic See, and espoused her regularly, according to the forms of the Church.¹

An earlier dispensation, issued in 1345, had annulled Elizabeth’s betrothal to Hugh Giffard. Elizabeth was the daughter of Adam Mure of Rowallon, Ayrshire. Though whether her mother was his first wife, Joan Cunnigham, or his second wife, Janet, is undetermined. The unusual nature of their relationship and marital situation has given rise to questions over the legitimacy of their children. According to John Riddell, the facts of the relationship are that:

Robert II, when related to Elizabeth Mure, in the third and fourth forbidden degrees of affinity, and the fourth forbidden degree of consanguinity, lived for a long space in concubinage with her, during which ‘prolis utriusque sexus multitudinem procrearunf’ – during that unhallowed, and in law, incestuous connection; till at last, resolving to marry, but discovering the double relationship between them, which was a bar to their marriage at common (Ecclesiastical) law, they then obtained a dispensation from Clement VI, in 1347, for the purpose, in ordinary form. After which it is in proof, that they did marry under authority of the dispensation, – Robert founding in 1364, in compliance with an injunction there, a Chaplainry, in expiation of his former offence, which was, by received doctrine at the time, deemed an aggravated one.²

It has been argued that the children of Robert and Elizabeth were not only born outside of marriage, but also that their parents were related within the limited degrees, and therefore the relationship was incestuous without a papal dispensation. This, however, ignores the possibility that Robert and Elizabeth did go through a form of marriage in the 1330s, when Scotland was deeply involved in its war with England and, with David II sent to France for his safety and Robert was the senior representative of the Bruce family in Scotland. Moreover, it may have been thought prudent that Robert should marry sooner, rather than later, for dynastic considerations. With Edward Balliol unmarried and with no heir, the fact that the king’s heir was married with children was significant, a sign that the Bruce–Stewart dynasty was secure, at least.

That the marriage was not regularised until the war was over could be excused by the fact there were more urgent matters to attend to and the financial and legal obligations of obtaining a dispensation could wait. This would certainly explain the papacy’s willingness to regulate the marriage by issuing a retroactive dispensation. Alternatively, they may have only recently discovered a familial relationship within the prohibited degrees, and therefore applied for a dispensation. Elizabeth and Robert then underwent a second, formal, marriage ceremony in 1349.

Their first child, John, had been born in about 1337 and was created Earl of Carrick in 1369, the title held by his great-grandfather, Robert the Bruce, before he became king. He would ascend the throne as Robert III on his father’s death in 1390. Although the birth order could be slightly different, it seems likely that John was followed by a sister, Margaret, who was married to John MacDonald, Lord of the Isles, as his second wife, for which a papal dispensation was issued on 14 June 1350. The couple were granted the island of Colowsay by Margaret’s father in a charter dated to July 1376. Three more sons followed, Walter, Robert and Alexander. Walter was married to Isabel, Countess of Fife, in April 1360 or 1361. He died sometime after 14 August 1362 but before the end of the year, as his widow married again, to Thomas Bisset of Upsetlington on 10 January 1363. She resigned the earldom of Fife to Walter’s brother, Robert Stewart, Earl of Menteith, on 30 March 1371.

Robert Stewart is identified as the ‘second born of the king’ in the Liber Pluscardensis. Robert was Earl of Menteith by right of his wife, Margaret Graham, a title she herself had inherited from her mother, Mary. Margaret had been married three times before; her first husband, Sir John Moray, was the son of Christian Bruce, King Robert I’s sister, by her last husband, Sir Andrew Murray. Robert was later created Duke of Albany and acted as regent during his brother’s reign.

The third son, Alexander, has a significant reputation as a cruel and rapacious character, earning him the nickname, the Wolf of Badenoch. He married Euphemia, Countess of Ross and was Earl of Ross in her name. Euphemia resigned her share of Buchan to the king, who regranted it to Alexander and Euphemia, in July 1382, so that they were Earl and Countess of Ross and Buchan. The marriage had its difficulties and Alexander left his wife, for ‘Mariota’s daughter Athyn’ but was ordered to return to her, in a charter dated 2 November 1389, by the Bishop of Moray and Ross. Apparently, the breach was irretrievable, as Pope Clement VII ‘issued a commission to dissolve her marriage’ on 9 June 1392, and in December 1392 Euphemia was granted a divorce ‘from bed and board’.³ Although Alexander had seven illegitimate children, he and Euphemia had remained childless.

Robert II and Elizabeth Mure also had four more daughters, although their order of birth is unknown. Marjory married John Dunbar, the son of Patrick Dunbar and Isabel Randolph of Moray. He was created Earl of Moray by his father-in-law in March 1372. Marjory’s second husband was Alexander Keith of Grandown.

Jean, or Joan, Stewart was married three times, firstly to John Keith, son of William de Keith, the Marischal, in January 1374. John died just fourteen months later. A year after that, in either June or October 1376, Jean married Sir John Lyon of Glamis. On 4 October 1376, King Robert II granted land, the thanedom of Tannadyce in Forfar, possibly a wedding gift, ‘to his dearest son John Lyon and Johanna his wife, the King’s beloved daughter’.⁴ The marriage was initially kept secret and only publicly acknowledged on 10 May 1378 when the king, with the consent of his surviving sons, ‘granted to the spouses letters of acknowledgement and remission for any clandestine marriage formerly contracted by them, in regard a marriage had been solemnly celebrated between them in face of the Church, in presence of the King and his sons and other friends and relatives.’⁵ Further grants followed, but Sir John was killed, apparently murdered by Sir James Lindsay on 4 November 1382. According to the Liber Pluscardensis, the deed was done at night when the ‘victim was in bed and unsuspecting’.⁶ Their only child was John’s son and successor, also called John Lyon. On 20 November 1384, Jean married for a third and final time, to Sir James Sandilands of Calder. Ahead of the marriage, Sir James was granted the baronies of Dalzell, Motherwell and Wiston, to be held by Sir James and Jean, the king’s daughter, ‘whom God willing he is about to take to wife’.⁷ The princess is last mentioned in 1404, as ‘Lady Johanna of Glammys’. She was buried beside her second husband, Sir John Lyon, at Scone Abbey.

Another daughter, Elizabeth Stewart, married Thomas Hay, Baron of Erroll and Constable of Scotland. A charter issued by King Robert II granted an annuity to ‘Thomas Hay and Elizabeth the king’s daughter, and the children born and to be born of them’ dated 7 September 1372, the day of their marriage.⁸

Isabel Stewart was married twice, firstly to James Douglas, son of William Douglas, Earl of Douglas, and his wife, Margaret, Countess of Mar. A papal dispensation was issued for the marriage in September 1371 and James succeeded his father as Earl Douglas in 1384. Sir James died in 1388 and sometime in the next two years, Isabel married John Edmonstone of Duntreath. Isabel most likely died before 22 July 1410, when accounts record payments to ‘John Edmonstone … for the reason that he was once married to the Countess of Douglas’.⁹

Through the marriages of his sons and daughters, Robert Stewart created a familial network that extended his influence over the greater part of central, western and north-eastern Scotland. He formed unions with eight of the country’s fifteen existing earldoms as well as gaining other lordships, royal castles and offices north of the Forth-Clyde line. However, the unusual nature of the marriage of Robert and Elizabeth would always leave a question mark hanging over the legitimacy of their children, an uncertainty that the children of Robert’s second marriage would highlight and try to exploit.

But it was Elizabeth’s eldest son, John, Earl of Carrick, who would succeed his father as King Robert III. Elizabeth herself, though married to David II’s heir, was never to become queen. She died sometime before 1355, possibly in childbirth as she would have been no more than in her late 30s, or perhaps from complications arising from having borne at least nine children, and possibly as many as thirteen. We have so little information about her that her place of burial is also unknown, though Paisley Abbey or Scone Abbey are possibilities. We only know that poor Elizabeth was dead by 1355 because 2 May of that year is the date of the papal dispensation for Robert Stewart’s second marriage, to Euphemia Ross.

Whatever the nature of their marriage, and the reason for the dispensation, it was not an arranged marriage for dynastic purposes. Robert and Elizabeth appear to have chosen each other. The number of children born, even during times of war, suggests that Robert and Elizabeth had a close and loving relationship. This did not, however, preclude Robert from marrying again, possibly only a short time after Elizabeth’s death. Walter Bower suggests that, although Robert’s relationship with Elizabeth Mure was earlier, the marriage only occurred after Queen Euphemia’s death:

It is noteworthy that the said King Robert fathered three sons by the Lady Elizabeth daughter of Sir Adam More, namely John who was later king, and Robert duke of Albany, and the said Alexander earl of Buchan, who was commonly called ‘The Wolf of Badenoch’. Later he married the Lady Euphemia daughter of Hugh earl of Ross, by whom he fathered Walter earl of Athol and lord of Brechin, and David earl of Strathearn. But on the death of Queen Euphemia he married the said Lady Elizabeth, and so by virtue of subsequent marriage, a second marriage ceremony, the said brothers John, Robert and Alexander were legitimated, for according to canon law a subsequent marriage legitimates sons born before the marriage.¹⁰

This timeline, of course, does not work, as the papal dispensation, legitimising the children, was issued in 1347 and there is every indication that Elizabeth was dead before 1355.

King Robert II died at Dundonald Castle on 19 April 1390 and was buried at Scone Abbey. He had spent almost his entire life as heir presumptive to the Scottish throne, always waiting on the sidelines. It is a sad fact of history that we have very little insight into the personalities and appearances of Robert’s wives. We do not know, for instance, what either wife thought of his various mistresses, nor his illegitimate children. They cannot have been happy about his philandering but may have accepted it, reluctantly. It was certainly not an unusual trait in the men of the family, as both Robert the Bruce and David II had had a string of mistresses.

Robert’s first wife, Elizabeth Mure, never got to wear the crown, though her influence, through her children, would set the tone for the Scottish royal house of Stewart into the next century.

We shall leave the story Robert’s second wife, Queen Euphemia, for another day.

Images: courtesy of Wikipedia

Notes:

1. John of Fordun’s Chronicle of the Scottish Nation; 2. John Riddell, Stewartiana, containing the case of Robert II and Elizabeth Mure; 3. Sir James Balfour Paul, editor, The Scots Peerage, Vol. VII; 4. ibid, Vol VIII; 5. ibid; 6. ibid; 7. ibid; 8. Burnett (1880) Exchequer Rolls, Vol. IV; 9. ibid; 10. Bower, Scotichronicon, V 7.

Sources:

John of Fordun’s Chronicle of the Scottish Nation, edited by W. F. Skene; Walter Bower, Scotichronicon; John Riddell, Stewartiana, containing the case of Robert II and Elizabeth Mure; Sir James Balfour Paul, editor, The Scots Peerage; fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/SCOTLAND; Susan Abernethy, The Two Wives of Robert II, King of Scots – Elizabeth Mure and Euphemia Ross; G. Barrow, G. (1978), The Aftermath of War: Scotland and England in the late Thirteenth and early Fourteenth Centuries; Rosalind K. Marshall, Scottish Queens 1034–1714; Nigel Tranter, The Story of Scotland; Richard Oram, editor, The Kings and Queens of Scotland; David Ross, Scotland, History of a Nation; Liber pluscardensis, edited by Felix James Henry Skene.

My Books

Signed, dedicated copies of all my books are available through my online bookshop.

Out now: Scotland’s Medieval Queens

Scotland’s history is dramatic, violent and bloody. Being England’s northern neighbour has never been easy. Scotland’s queens have had to deal with war, murder, imprisonment, political rivalries and open betrayal. They have loved and lost, raised kings and queens, ruled and died for Scotland. From St Margaret, who became one of the patron saints of Scotland, to Elizabeth de Burgh and the dramatic story of the Scottish Wars of Independence, to the love story and tragedy of Joan Beaufort, to Margaret of Denmark and the dawn of the Renaissance, Scotland’s Medieval Queens have seen it all. This is the story of Scotland through their eyes.

‘Scotland’s Medieval Queens gives a thorough grounding in the history of the women who ruled Scotland at the side of its kings, often in the shadows, but just as interesting in their lives beyond the spotlight. It’s not a subject that has been widely covered, and Sharon is a pioneer in bringing that information into accessible history.’ Elizabeth Chadwick (New York Times bestselling author)

Available now from Amazon and Pen and Sword Books

Coming 30 March 2026: Princesses of the Early Middle Ages

Daughters of kings were often used to seal treaty alliances and forge peace with England’s enemies. Princesses of the Early Middle Ages: Royal Daughters of the Conquest explores the lives of these young women, how they followed the stereotype, and how they sometimes managed to escape it. It will look at the world they lived in, and how their lives and marriages were affected by political necessity and the events of the time. Princesses of the Early Middle Ages will also examine how these girls, who were often political pawns, were able to control their own lives and fates. Whilst they were expected to obey their parents in their marriage choices, several princesses were able to exert their own influence on these choices, with some outright refusing the husbands offered to them.

Their stories are touching, inspiring and, at times, heartbreaking.

Princesses of the Early Middle Ages: Royal Daughters of the Conquest is now available for pre-order.

Also by Sharon Bennett Connolly:

Heroines of the Tudor World tells the stories of the most remarkable women from European history in the time of the Tudor dynasty, 1485-1603. These are the women who ruled, the women who founded dynasties, the women who fought for religious freedom, their families and love. Heroines of the Tudor World is now available from Amberley Publishing and Amazon UK. Women of the Anarchy demonstrates how Empress Matilda and Matilda of Boulogne, unable to wield a sword themselves, were prime movers in this time of conflict and lawlessness. It shows how their strengths, weaknesses, and personal ambitions swung the fortunes of war one way – and then the other. Available from Bookshop.org, Amberley Publishing and Amazon UK. King John’s Right-Hand Lady: The Story of Nicholaa de la Haye is the story of a truly remarkable lady, the hereditary constable of Lincoln Castle and the first woman in England to be appointed sheriff in her own right. Available from all good bookshops Pen & Sword Books, bookshop.org and Amazon.

Defenders of the Norman Crown: The Rise and Fall of the Warenne Earls of Surrey tells the fascinating story of the Warenne dynasty, from its origins in Normandy, through the Conquest, Magna Carta, the wars and marriages that led to its ultimate demise in the reign of Edward III. Available from Pen & Sword Books, Amazon in the UK and US, and Bookshop.org. Ladies of Magna Carta: Women of Influence in Thirteenth Century England looks into the relationships of the various noble families of the 13th century, and how they were affected by the Barons’ Wars, Magna Carta and its aftermath; the bonds that were formed and those that were broken. It is now available in paperback and hardback from Pen & Sword, Amazon, and Bookshop.org. Heroines of the Medieval World tells the stories of some of the most remarkable women from Medieval history, from Eleanor of Aquitaine to Julian of Norwich. Available now from Amberley Publishing and Amazon, and Bookshop.org. Silk and the Sword: The Women of the Norman Conquest traces the fortunes of the women who had a significant role to play in the momentous events of 1066. Available now from Amazon, Amberley Publishing, and Bookshop.org.

Alternate Endings: An anthology of historical fiction short stories including Long Live the King… which is my take what might have happened had King John not died in October 1216. Available in paperback and kindle from Amazon.

Podcast:

Have a listen to the A Slice of Medieval podcast, which I co-host with Historical fiction novelist Derek Birks. Derek and I welcome guests, such as Ian Mortimer, Bernard Cornwell, Elizabeth Chadwick and Scott Mariani, and discuss a wide range of topics in medieval history, from significant events to the personalities involved.

There are now over 80 episodes to listen to!

Every episode is also now available on YouTube.

Don’t forget! Signed and dedicated copies of all my books are available through my online bookshop.

For forthcoming online and in-person talks, please check out my Events Page.

You can be the first to read new articles by clicking the ‘Follow’ button, liking our Facebook page or joining me on Twitter, Threads, Bluesky and Instagram.

Book Corner: Swords in the Snow by Matthew Harffy and Steven A. McKay

12/12/202511/12/2025Sharon Bennett ConnollyLeave a comment

A stolen relic. A dying child. A desperate chase.

December, c. AD 1330.

When thieves snatch a priceless holy relic from a Pontefract church, Friar Tuck and the bailiff, John Little, set out through snowbound Yorkshire to recover it. The relic is the only hope for a gravely ill girl—but the hunt soon turns bloody.

From frozen dales to the mud-slick streets of York, John and Tuck pursue ruthless crime lord William Wake and his brutal enforcers: the battle-hardened Henry Tanner and the murderous giant Grimbald de Pendok.

When they finally face each other with swords in the snow, will Little John and Friar Tuck find they have met their match at last, or will there be a Christmas miracle?

It has fast become a tradition for me, as the night’s are drawing in and it is frosty outside, to read a novella written by Steven A. McKay. The author of the Forest Lord series, Steven has now written a whole host of Christmas mysteries which draw Robin Hood’s companions, Little John, Will Scarlet and Friar Tuck, into a life-or-death adventure, when all they want to do is sit around a warm fire, eating and drinking and telling stories of adventures past.

But no.

Steven A. McKay insists on sending them out into the freezing winds and deep snow drifts to entertain us. I feel sorry for the Merry Men (or not so ‘merry’ when they’re cold, wet and fighting for their lives), I do. But I do love these medieval mysteries.

This year is no exception, but with a twist and a treat. And this time, with Swords in the Snow, Steven A. McKay has enlisted the help of his fellow novelist and friend, Matthew Harffy, the creator of the Bernicia Chronicles, to act -or, rather, write – as the ‘bad guys’. And so, Little John and Friar Tuck are once again trudging through snow and mud, in search of thieves and murderers, and a Christmas miracle. At least there are no ghosts this time.

“Tuck!” The shout rang out, loud in the still winter air, and John, recognising a distinct note of alarm in it, spun around, staff held defensively before him. At his side, Tuck was in a similar posture, ready for whatever an enemy might throw at them, but the cry came again and the bailiff realised it had come from someone standing at the entrance to All Saints’ Church.

“Is that Bishop Wulstan?”

John squinted as the clergyman stepped out from the doorway and the pale December day lit his features. “Aye, it is,” the bailiff nodded. “Something’s upset him too.”

“Come over, Tuck,” the bishop called almost frantically. “And you too, John.”

With a last, longing look at the baker’s, both men sighed and walked across to the church. It was not a particularly large building, but it was impressive nonetheless, having been built quite recently.

Bishop Wulstan Barnsford had met John and Tuck before, when they’d investigated a strange, and ultimately murderous, religious sect. The bishop had led the trial against the leader of the cult, Lady Alice de Staynton, whose punishment was excommunication and banishment. He was a competent, clever man who did not seem the type to be easily upset, so John was surprised to note how pale the bishop’s complexion was. He was wringing his hands as the former outlaws strode across the road and, as they reached him, he let out a long sigh that conveyed great relief, as if he was glad to meet someone who could take the weight from his shoulders.

“What’s happened, your grace?” Tuck asked, reading the signs as John had done.

In reply, Bishop Wulstan turned, beckoning for them to follow as he went into All Saints’.

The pair did as they were bidden and walked inside, both tugging their collars up for it was even colder in the church than it was outside, their breath steaming in the frigid, incense-tinged air as they walked.

“In the name of God!” Tuck cried, hurrying ahead as they saw a priest lying on his side on the floor, eyes open but clearly in great pain and distress. “Stand back,” the friar commanded and the two men who were kneeling beside the priest hastily moved aside to let him through. They might have no idea who the burly newcomer was, but his tone brooked no argument.

John looked on, bemused, as Tuck, a man of learning who’d often acted as healer or surgeon for Robin Hood’s outlaw gang, tended to the injured priest who had, at least, been covered with a blanket.

“What happened here?” the friar asked.

“Thieves,” said the fallen clergyman, grunting in pain as Tuck checked him for broken bones. “They came in the night. I tried to stop them, but there was a giant with them and he—” His eyes fell on Little John and he visibly shrank into himself, terror written across his bruised face.

In Swords in the Snow Steven A. McKay and Matthew Harffy complement each other’s writing wonderfully, making for an engaging, entertaining and, quite frankly, thrilling story. And while Steven A. McKay takes Little John and Friar Tuck on a chilly ride through Yorkshire, hunting for the fiends who stole a holy relic from Pontefract, Matthew Harffy directs those said villains through their escapades.

It makes for some surprising twists and turns.

The two writing styles truly complement each other and create an exciting, gripping story.

Swords in the Snow is about half the length of a full novel, which means the authors have kept the story tight and focused, and you can tell they enjoyed working on the project. Here’s hoping it leads to even more collaborative work; perhaps Steven A. McKay will visit Bernicia and Beobrand next Christmas (hint, hint, fellas!)

In short, Swords in the Snow is a jolly good read, especially on a cold winter night when you are tucked up warm in front of a blazing fire!

To Buy the book:

Swords in the Snow is available now from Amazon.

About the authors:

Steven A. McKay was born in Scotland in 1977 and always enjoyed studying history. He decided to write his Forest Lord novels after seeing a house called “Sherwood” when he was out at work one day. Since then he’s started a new series, the Warrior Druid of Britain Chronicles, and just completed a trilogy about Alfred the Great.

In 2021 the Xbox game HOOD: Outlaws and Legends was released, featuring Steven’s writing.

Steven wrote the theme song for the podcast he co-hosted, Rock, Paper, Swords! with Matthew Harffy.

Matthew Harffy lived in Northumberland as a child and the area had a great impact on him. The rugged terrain, ruined castles and rocky coastline made it easy to imagine the past. Decades later, a documentary about Northumbria’s Golden Age sowed the kernel of an idea for a series of historical fiction novels. The first of them is the action-packed tale of vengeance and coming of age, The Serpent Sword.

Matthew has worked in the IT industry, where he spent all day writing and editing, just not the words that most interested him. Prior to that he worked in Spain as an English teacher and translator. Matthew lives in Wiltshire, England, with his wife and their two daughters.

For all the latest news and exclusive competitions, join Matthew online: http://www.matthewharffy.com; twitter.com/@MatthewHarffy; http://www.facebook.com/MatthewHarffyAuthor

My Books

Signed, dedicated copies of all my books are available through my online bookshop.

Out now: Scotland’s Medieval Queens

Available now from Amazon and Pen and Sword Books

Coming 30 March 2026: Princesses of the Early Middle Ages

Their stories are touching, inspiring and, at times, heartbreaking.

Princesses of the Early Middle Ages: Royal Daughters of the Conquest is now available for pre-order.

Also by Sharon Bennett Connolly:

Podcast:

There are now over 80 episodes to listen to!

Every episode is also now available on YouTube.

Don’t forget! Signed and dedicated copies of all my books are available through my online bookshop.

For forthcoming online and in-person talks, please check out my Events Page.

You can be the first to read new articles by clicking the ‘Follow’ button, liking our Facebook page or joining me on Twitter, Threads, Bluesky and Instagram.

Book Corner: Mortimer’s A to Zs of English History by Ian Mortimer

11/12/2025Sharon Bennett ConnollyLeave a comment

From the bestselling author of the Time Traveller’s Guides

In these sparkling A to Zs, time-travelling historian Ian Mortimer visits four classic periods of English history: the fourteenth century, the Elizabethan age, the Restoration and the Regency.

As he ranges from the Great Plague to the Great Freeze, from Armada to Austen, and from tobacco to toenails, he shines a light into corners of history we never knew were so fascinating — or so revealing of the whole.

How did the button change life in the Middle Ages? If you found yourself at a smart Elizabethan party, should you kiss your hostess on the lips? Why were pistols safer than swords in a duel? And how come Regency Londoners quaffed so much port?

This is Mortimer at his accessible and witty best. As ever, his aim is not only to bring the past to life but also to illuminate our own times.

A couple of weeks ago, Derek Birks and I had the pleasure of chatting with Ian Mortimer on our podcast, A Slice of Medieval, and we talked about THIS book. You can listen to the episode when it goes live on New Years’ Eve. And if this review doesn’t persuade you to have a read, Ian’s interview certainly will. Ian Mortimer has a refreshing outlook on History – he not only wants to make it accessible to everyone, he wants to make it enjoyable. And he wants you to look at History from different angles, even sideways. Because then, you see things differently.

Mortimer’s A to Zs of English History is split into 5 sections and focuses on 4 main periods; 14th century, Elizabeth, Restoration and Regency, with a 5th section, the envoi, an A to Z of reflections on those themes history that cross periods. This is a stunning book and a thoroughly enjoyable read.

Many History fans look down on general History books, saying they already know the basics. But this isn’t basic. It is not as much about the facts as it is about changing the way you look at the facts. It is about making you think and making you look differently at the facts, at what we know and how we know it. It makes you wonder how inventions came about, how innovations developed. It makes you consider how diet, environment, opportunities – and the weather – affected society and drove change.

And the envoi of Mortimer’s A to Zs of English History highlights what doesn’t change, considering the values, good and bad, that transect eras and generations. Xenophobia, for instance, rears its ugly head in every generation. Speed, also, is a consideration throughout the eras; the speed of travel, of communication and of progress.

Q is for Queenship

What are medieval queens for? Obviously, they are the partners of kings and their primary duty is to produce the next generation of the royal family. In medieval times it is essential to have a line of succession: political stability depends on it. But it is worth asking what queens are for other than childbirth. After all, they are not like other aristocratic women. When Lord So-and-so goes off to court, he leaves Lady So-and-so behind to look after the household in his absence, with staff to carry out her instructions, just as in countless other private households in the country. But when the king travels, the court goes with him. His queen might remain in one of the palaces or castles or she might accompany him, but even if she remains, her role is limited. Officials are left in charge of the royal residences. Childcare is normally passed over to other women – wetnurses and guardians. When a fourteenth-century king goes abroad, he entrusts the guardianship of the realm to his heir or a near male relative, not his queen. (In this respect, the fourteenth-century is more sexist than earlier ones.) So it is fair to ask, what other purpose do queens serve?

There are several interesting ways to answer this question. For a start, no fourteenth-century English king marries an Englishwoman. Edward I marries Eleanor of Castile and then Margaret of France. Edward II marries Isabella of France. Edward III marries Philippa of Hainault. Richard II first marries Anne of Bohemia and later Isabella of France. Henry IV is married to an Englishwoman, Mary de Bohun, before becoming king but she dies five years before his accession. The same pattern applies to the previous century: King John annuls his marriage to Isabella of Gloucester almost immediately on becoming king and marries a French heiress, Isabella of Angoulême, very shortly afterwards. Queens are a diplomatic link with other kings and kingdoms. They bring with them foreign attendants and a large number of foreign relations – this is an age when third and fourth cousins are an important source of trust, information and support. Edward II’s queen, Isabella of France, is given the task of negotiating a peace treaty with her brother, Charles IV of France, on her husband’s behalf. Queens thus tie England into an international diplomatic network.

Mortimer’s A to Zs of English History will make you think, question – and want to know more. It is a fabulous resource of facts that you didn’t even know you didn’t know – and didn’t know you needed to know.

Who would have thought of buttons as causing a revolution in fashion? Did you know cows and sheep were smaller in medieval times? Ian Mortimer takes a look at the History we do not always consider: the everyday, the quirky, the mundane. He’s insightful; how much more would we have known about medieval women if they had been taught to write, allowed to tell their own stories?

If you have a History fan in your family, you should get them Mortimer’s A to Zs of English History for Christmas.

It is educational.

It is entertaining.

It is amusing.

It is revelatory.

It is a ‘must read’.

You will not look at History in the same way ever again. Get it. Read it. Devour it. And gift a copy to a friend. It is a fabulous resource for anyone with a love of History – and an amazing introduction for anyone you want to get hooked on History.

Buy Mortimer’s A to Zs of English History

About the author:

Ian Mortimer is the bestselling author of the Time Traveller’s Guides series, as well as Medieval Horizons: Why the Middle Ages Matter and four critically acclaimed biographies. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society in 1998 and a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 2015. His work on the social history of medicine won the Alexander Prize in 2004 and was published by the Royal Historical Society in 2009. He lives with his wife on the edge of Dartmoor.

My Books

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Coming 30 March 2026: Princesses of the Early Middle Ages

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Princesses of the Early Middle Ages: Royal Daughters of the Conquest is now available for pre-order.

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Guest Post: The Festive History of Gingerbread and “The Twelve Days of Christmas” by Grace Tierney

01/12/202528/11/2025Sharon Bennett Connolly2 Comments

It’s December!

And to get us in the Christmas spirit, I have a wonderful guest post from Grace Tierney, looking into the history of two of our greatest Christmas traditions.

The Festive History of Gingerbread and “The Twelve Days of Christmas”

I’ve spent the last three years researching the words and traditions Christmas gave to the English language for my book “Words Christmas Gave Us”. The old roots of festive traditions are truly fascinating and a doorway to history. You can use Crusader spices in your mince pies and honour the Vikings by kissing under mistletoe. Two such doorways are the histories of gingerbread and the stories behind the lyrics of “The Twelve Days of Christmas”.

I always make gingerbread at Christmas and if your family makes (or eats) a gingerbread house at Christmas you have a fairytale to thank for it, and you’re continuing a history which goes back 5,000 years.

Gingerbread entered the English language in the late 1200s, spelled as gingerbrar but at that time the word was for preserved ginger. It arrived from Old French ginginbrat (ginger preserve) and Medieval Latin gingimbratus (gingered). By the mid 1300s the end of the word had changed to brede (bread) as the idea of sweet cakes spiced with ginger gained popularity, probably thanks to Crusaders returning to Europe with spices.

Ginger root had been used in medicine and food long before the 1300s, however. The plant was grown in China around 5,000 years ago and used in their traditional medicines. Some food historians claim early recipes for gingerbread date to 2400 B.C. in Greece. Certainly by the 1400s there are references to a gingerbread bakers’ guild in Germany.

Gingerbread figures are popular too, just as they are today. These date back to Tudor times. Shakespeare mentions them in “Love’s Labour’s Lost” in 1598. They were made to resemble important guests at the court of Queen Elizabeth I so they were much more elaborate and unique than the gingerbread man we cut out in our festive kitchens today. The giving of such figures on religious feast days at that time may explain gingerbread’s modern association with Christmas, although children’s stories about gingerbread men in the 1800s probably helped too.

The fairytale connection gives us the Christmas classic, the gingerbread house, thanks to the two folk-tale collectors, the famous Brothers Grimm. When they published the tale of Hansel and Gretel in 1812 the idea of a witch’s house made from bread sparked the readers’ imaginations. German bakers were quick to create the houses to sell to their customers and in the process started another tasty Christmas tradition. In fact in later editions of the tale, the word bread was changed to gingerbread in response to these new, and quickly beloved, gingerbread houses.

Thus the gingerbread house has a 5,000 year old history spanning Greece, Crusaders, German folk-tales, and the Tudor court before it reaches our homes at Christmas.

The chances of you hearing a choir or radio warbling “The Twelve Days of Christmas” in December this year are pretty high, but the rather strange lyrics provide another doorway into history and are well worth exploring as you listen to the tune.

First published in the late 1700s, “The Twelve Days of Christmas” is a popular English carol which lists the gifts given to the singer by their true love. The gift-giver is a very generous friend or romantic suitor who wants to celebrate on each day of the Christmas season with their loved one.

The origin of the song is obscure. Some sources believe it was originally chanted by children as a memory game. Each child would add a line and you paid a forfeit if you forgot one.

The twelve days refer to the traditional English Christmas season from Christmas Day until Twelfth Night which falls on the 5th of January, although there was a version called “The Ten Days of Christmas” in the north of England.

One theory, dating to the 1990s and well debunked by now, arose that the lyrics were reminders to Catholic children of the articles of their faith when it was outlawed in England. The “two turtle doves” were the old and new testaments, the “ten lords “were the ten commandments, and the “true love: was from God at baptism.

Apparently it would cost your true love £28,000 to send these gifts in the 2020s which is very generous by most people’s standards. It rises closer to £119,000 if the gifts are bought repeatedly each time they’re mentioned in the song’s cumulative verses.

Now let’s take a look at each of the gifts and what meanings they may contain.

A Partridge in a Pear Tree – It should be noted that partridges are ground birds and don’t perch in trees, although this particular line may come from an earlier song which had a line about a pie sitting in a pear tree. This doesn’t refer to the classic Tudor love of a festive pie, it’s a magpie which is perching in the tree this time which is feasible.

Two Turtle Doves – It’s mentioned in the Bible that two turtle doves were sacrificed at the circumcision of Jesus, so this one may be a reference to that ceremony or even to love with the birds representing a pair of lovers.

Three French Hens – French in this case simply means foreign, and is probably included to make them seem special or expensive relative to local hens.

Four Calling Birds – Earlier versions of the lyrics presented the receiver with four canary birds, four mockingbirds, or four colly (or collie) birds which is an archaic term for blackbirds. Blackbirds were called colly birds because of coal, which is black. Coal is associated with Christmas in two other ways – the coal you bring if you are First Footing in Scotland and the coal in your stocking if you’ve been naughty and have found yourself on the wrong list.

Five Golden Rings – The rings are perhaps the most obvious choice of gift from a lover (although five seems excessive) but this may be a mishearing of goldspinks, an alternative word for goldfinches, yet another bird. Certainly by 1780 song illustrations show the rings as being jewellery.

Six Geese a-Laying – the goose was the bird of choice for Christmas feasting until relatively recent times in the British Isles.

Seven Swans a-Swimming – Since the 1100s the British monarch owns the mute swans on the River Thames. The British Royal Family still maintains a Royal Swan Keeper and this is historically because swans were eaten at special feasts. This makes the seven swans here a very valuable gift indeed, although thankfully swans are now a protected species and nobody eats them.

Eight Maids a-Milking – These particular maidens appear to be dairy maids at work, perhaps creating cheese and butter for the feasting.

Nine Ladies Dancing – Having gathered all the items for decoration and feasting the giver now moves on to inviting guests and creating some music. The ladies get the party started.

Ten Lords a-Leaping – If you have pretty ladies dancing it won’t be long before gentlemen arrive to join them. Tudor era dances involved leaping, and lifting of the ladies, so the gents are in perfect form here.

Eleven Pipers Piping – Small pipes and flutes would provide the melody for the dance.

Twelve Drummers Drumming – Add some percussion and the scene is set for a perfect Twelfth Night revel. The true love had a passion for party planning as well as gift giving.

While we no longer party for the entire twelve days between the 25th of December and the 5th of January, if you need to plan a Tudor style revel this year, the song might well be your guide (although please leave the swans alone or sculpt them in chocolate or marzipan). The song gives us a glimpse back in time to some serious next level gift giving and yuletide feasting.

Finally, if you enjoy parodies, look up Frank Kelly’s “Christmas Countdown”, a classic comedy sketch which recounts how the generous gifts recounted in the song ruined Christmas for one Irish recipient. You might know Frank better as the alcoholic Father Jack in the sitcom “Father Ted”.

Wishing you all a very Merry Christmas and hoping it lasts for twelve days and includes plenty of gingerbread.

About Grace Tierney

Grace Tierney is an author, and blogger writing on Ireland’s coast. She blogs about the history of unusual words at http://wordfoolery.wordpress.com every Monday and broadcasts a monthly slot about etymology on LMFM radio since 2020.

Her books about words are “Words Christmas Gave Us”, “How To Get Your Name in the Dictionary” (the extraordinary lives of those who gave their names as eponyms to English), “Words The Sea Gave Us” (nautical nouns from fishermen, pirates, and explorers), “Words the Vikings Gave Us” (how Vikings gave us everyday English words), and “Modern Words with Old Roots” (the ancient histories of 50 modern words).

Her favourite Christmas word is twixtmas because it’s the quiet part of the season, spent with family, friends, and a heap of new books.

Grace’s Social Media Links

http://www.twitter.com/Wordfoolery
http://www.facebook.com/gracetierneywriter
http://www.bsky.app/profile/wordfoolery.bsky.social
http://www.instagram.com/wordfoolery/

Where to Buy “Words Christmas Gave Us”

“Words Christmas Gave Us” by Grace Tierney is out now in hardback, paperback, and ebook format.
Physical copies are available from Amazon worldwide, waterstones.com , and foyles.co.uk as well as select independent bookstores and libraries.
All the links are at https://wordfoolery.wordpress.com/my-books/
Signed copies are available directly from the author via https://wordfoolery.wordpress.com/would-you-like-a-signed-copy/

“Words Christmas Gave Us” unwraps the stories behind the season, via festive words from advent to yule and grinch to scurryfunge. This book, the third in the series, explores the influence of Greeks, Romans, Vikings, Tudors, Dickens, and of course Santa Claus, on worldwide traditions, merry music, decorations, feasts, and more. Discover why Jean-Paul Sartre wrote a nativity play, when Jingle Bells was sung in space, what Christmas decoration used to contain false teeth, how a newspaper typo started Santa tracking, and plenty of festive folklore traditions.

Ideal for word geeks, Christmas enthusiasts, and anybody who’s ever said Bah Humbug or Ho Ho Ho.

My Books

Signed, dedicated copies of all my books are available through my online bookshop.

Out now: Scotland’s Medieval Queens

Available now from Amazon and Pen and Sword Books

Coming 30 March 2026: Princesses of the Early Middle Ages

Their stories are touching, inspiring and, at times, heartbreaking.

Princesses of the Early Middle Ages: Royal Daughters of the Conquest is now available for pre-order.

Also by Sharon Bennett Connolly:

Podcast:

Have a listen to the A Slice of Medieval podcast, which I co-host with Historical fiction novelist Derek Birks. Derek and I welcome guests, such as Bernard Cornwell, Elizabeth Chadwick and Scott Mariani, and discuss a wide range of topics in medieval history, from significant events to the personalities involved.

There are now over 80 episodes to listen to!

Every episode is also now available on YouTube.

Don’t forget! Signed and dedicated copies of all my books are available through my online bookshop.

For forthcoming online and in-person talks, please check out my Events Page.

You can be the first to read new articles by clicking the ‘Follow’ button, liking our Facebook page or joining me on Twitter, Threads, Bluesky and Instagram.

Black Agnes

29/11/202529/11/2025Sharon Bennett ConnollyLeave a comment

You may have noticed that I love the stories of women from medieval times who do the remarkable, who will defy a tyrant or hold a castle while under siege. Women like Nicholaa de la Haye. And yet, Nicholaa was not the only medieval woman to hold tenaciously to a castle under siege. It was more common than one might think. Matilda de Braose (or Briouze), the Lady of Hay, was another such, who held her castle against the besieging Welsh; as was Agnes of Dunbar, known to history as Black Agnes and a woman who was a blight on English forces in Scotland. Agnes was a bold lady whose acts of defiance against the English would surely have impressed Nicholaa, nationalities aside, of course.

Agnes was the eldest daughter of Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray, and his wife Isabel, a daughter of Sir John Stewart of Bunkle. Thomas Randolph was a favoured nephew of Robert the Bruce, King of Scots, and one of his most stalwart supporters. Randolph was rewarded with the earldom of Moray and the appointment as guardian during the minority of King Robert’s son and successor, David II, in 1329.

There is very little known of the early life of Agnes, until about 1320, when she was married to Patrick, Earl of Dunbar. We can imagine that Agnes envisioned a life as a typical laird’s lady, raising children, looking after the land and tenants while her husband was away fighting. Unfortunately, Agnes and Patrick would remain childless, so the countess was not preoccupied with raising children. Agnes’s younger sister, Isabel, was married to Sir Patrick Dunbar, Earl Patrick’s cousin, and it would be their son, George, who would be made heir to Earl Patrick and Agnes.

From the timing of the marriage, we can surmise that Agnes was probably born just after the turn of the century, into a country struggling to gain independence from its aggressive neighbour, England. It would, therefore, not be unreasonable to assume that she saw little of her father during her early years as he was frequently away fighting; even after the Scottish victory at Bannockburn in 1314, Randolph continued in active service for the Scottish crown, fighting with Robert the Bruce in Ireland in 1317, and in the borders with England in 1318 and 1319.

Scotland’s troubles continued long into the reign of David II, with the English backing David’s rival, Edward Balliol, son of Scotland’s former king, John Balliol. This despite David II being married to Edward III’s sister, Joan of the Tower. The throne would pass back and forth between the two claimants for several years. When Agnes’s father died in 1332, he was succeeded by her brother Thomas, who was killed just weeks later, at the Battle of Dupplin Moor, fighting those who had been disinherited during the Wars of Independence. Thomas, in turn, was succeeded by another brother, John, who was killed fighting the English at the Battle of Neville’s Cross in 1346.

On John’s death, the earldom of Moray would pass to Agnes’s husband in right of his wife. Agnes and Patrick were cousins within the prohibited degree of consanguinity and a dispensation had been needed for them to marry. According to the chronicler, Pitscottie, she gained her name of Black Agnes ‘be ressone she was blak skynnit’, suggesting Agnes had a dark complexion; her black hair, dark eyes and olive skin more common among Mediterranean countries than the northern fastness of Scotland.¹ The English attributed a different reason to her name, to them, Black Agnes was the most evil Scotswoman who ever lived. Pitscottie went on to say of Agnes that she was ‘of greater spirit than it became a woman to be’, which, given her actions in the face of the enemy, is a fair appraisal of an incredible woman.²

Agnes was not the only woman to become heavily involved in the Scottish Wars of Independence, which had been a different kind of war from the very beginning. Robert the Bruce’s wife, daughter and sisters had been imprisoned for eight years by Edward I; his sister Christian would herself become involved in the fighting during her nephew David’s reign, defending the castle of Kildrummy against the supporters of Edward Balliol, in 1335.

Most of Agnes Randolph’s life is shrouded in mystery; there is very little mention of her existence until the English army appeared before her castle of Dunbar in January 1338. With the resumption of hostilities between England and Scotland in the 1330s, the castle of Dunbar became strategically important for both sides.

The stronghold had been rebuilt, at the expense of Edward III, in 1333, but by 1337 it was standing against England’s king. English affairs in the north lay in the hands of Richard (II) FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, and William Montague, Earl of Salisbury, and it was these two experienced military leaders who decided to launch an English offensive by attacking Dunbar. An impressive stronghold, the castle was all but impregnable; it was built at the mouth of the Dunbar harbour, on separate rocks, with interlinking bridges and corridors.

Strategically, the castle’s position made it impossible for the English to march past it and leave it behind them, intact, able to harry the invaders and cut their lines of communication with England. Earl Patrick was away from home at the time, however, Scottish writer Nigel Tranter suggests that Agnes deliberately allowed herself to be besieged to give the Scottish forces time to rally and organise a resistance to the English invasion. Even so, it must have been a terrifying sight for the countess to look out from the battlements and see an army approaching; and the English earls must surely have been confident that they could beat the countess and her reduced garrison.

In January 1338, the English laid siege to Dunbar, surrounding it as best they could. The army had brought a legion of engineers with it, thus ensuring that a vast number of siege engines could be constructed and the castle’s inhabitants would face an almost constant barrage from missiles. When Salisbury demanded that Agnes surrender, she is said to have responded,

Of Scotland’s King I haud my House,
He pays me meat and fee,
And I will keep my gude and house,
While my house will keep me.³

The siege didn’t go exactly as the English planned. Agnes mocked them at every opportunity, appearing on the battlements even during bombardments. She is said to have had her maids dusting the battlements where they had been struck by missiles. When a siege engine known as a sow (a battering ram) was brought to face the castle, Agnes is said to have taunted the English by shouting ‘Beware, Montagow, for fallow shall they sow.’ The Scots would use the displaced rocks, caused by the barrages, and the missiles that had been fired at them, and rain them back down on their enemies. As the sow was destroyed and the English took cover, Agnes is said to have shouted ‘Behold the litter of English pigs.’⁴ Attack after attack was repulsed by Agnes and her men; a ballad, said to have been written by Salisbury himself, demonstrates Agnes’ steadfast attitude:

She makes a stir in tower and trench,
That brawling, boisterous, Scottish wench;
Came I early, came I late,
I found Agnes at the gate!⁵

The English even tried subterfuge to win the castle, bribing one of the castle’s guards to raise the gate and allow entry to the English attackers. However, the guard, having taken the money, went straight to Agnes:

Believing that they were going to be entering the castle, the Earl and his soldiers arrived at the gate. The guards, thinking Salisbury would be first to enter, dropped the gate after the first soldier stepped into the castle. Fortunately for Salisbury, one of his men had passed him on the approach. The thwarted earl retreated back to his camp with Agnes yelling at him from the castle walls: ‘Fare thee well Montague, I meant that you should have supped with us and support us in upholding the castle from the English!’⁵

At one point, the English used Agnes’s brother John Randolph in an attempt to persuade her to submit. One of the regents of Scotland during David II’s minority, John had been ambushed and captured in 1335. He was brought before Dunbar Castle, where Salisbury threatened to hang him in full view of his sister. Unperturbed, Agnes responded that John’s death could only be to her own benefit; although she could not inherit John’s titles, she was, alongside her sister, co-heir to his lands. John was given a reprieve and sent to imprisonment in England. Ironically, he would be freed in 1341 as part of a prisoner exchange; for the earl of Salisbury, of all people!

The problem for the English lay in the fact that they could not entirely surround the castle. Although they could besiege it from the land, the castle was still accessible by sea. An English fleet was guarding the harbour, but Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie managed to replenish the castle’s dwindling supplies by using a fleet of fishing boats, approaching in the early dawn from the cover of the Bass Rock. He managed to sneak through the enemy lines, making a dash for the harbour before the larger English vessels could get underway. Ramsay managed to land vital supplies and reinforcements for the garrison through a partially submerged entrance.

Agnes even sent the Earl of Salisbury some fresh-baked food when she knew the English supplies were running low, taunting the poor earl. Eventually, Agnes’s resistance proved too much for the English army, and, after nineteen weeks, on 10 June 1338, they lifted the siege, claiming their men and resources were needed for the king’s campaigns overseas. It had cost over £6,000, prompting one English chronicler to record that the siege had been ‘wasteful, and neither honourable nor secure, but useful and advantageous to the Scots’.⁶

The struggle against the English continued for several more years, but David II and his queen, Joan of the Tower, the daughter of Edward II and sister of Edward III, returned to Scotland amid great rejoicing in 1341; only for David to become a captive of Edward III following the Battle of Neville’s Cross in 1346. Scotland’s king spent eleven years in English captivity, while Scotland was ruled by his nephew and heir, Robert the Steward.

David returned in 1357, the same year that Patrick, Earl of Dunbar, participated in the raid that saw Berwick returned to Scottish sovereignty, for a short time at least. Earl Patrick continued to witness royal charters until July 1368 and remained active in Scottish affairs until his death in 1369. When Agnes also died in 1369, aged about 57, her father’s earldom and that of her husband passed to her nephew, George Dunbar.

Agnes of Dunbar was a women of status, raised to command households, if not men, who stepped up to the mark when the occasion demanded it. Although she was not educated in military techniques and tactics, she had lived within a world that was constantly on a war footing and when faced with a fight, she rose to the challenge. With her death, Black Agnes passed into legend, her tenacity and stalwart defence of Dunbar Castle a shining example of what a mere woman can be capable of achieving.

Images:

Courtesy of Wikipedia